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- Thread starter ColdBlooded
- Start date
The Slaves That Time Forgot
By John Martin
They came as slaves; vast human cargo transported on tall British ships bound for the Americas. They were shipped by the hundreds of thousands and included men, women, and even the youngest of children.
Whenever they rebelled or even disobeyed an order, they were punished in the harshest ways. Slave owners would hang their human property by their hands and set their hands or feet on fire as one form of punishment. They were burned alive and had their heads placed on pikes in the marketplace as a warning to other captives.
We don’t really need to go through all of the gory details, do we? After all, we know all too well the atrocities of the African slave trade. But, are we talking about African slavery?
King James II and Charles I led a continued effort to enslave the Irish. Britain’s famed Oliver Cromwell furthered this practice of dehumanizing one’s next door neighbor.
The Irish slave trade began when James II sold 30,000 Irish prisoners as slaves to the New World. His Proclamation of 1625 required Irish political prisoners be sent overseas and sold to English settlers in the West Indies. By the mid 1600s, the Irish were the main slaves sold to Antigua and Montserrat. At that time, 70% of the total population of Montserrat were Irish slaves.
Ireland quickly became the biggest source of human livestock for English merchants. The majority of the early slaves to the New World were actually white.
From 1641 to 1652, over 500,000 Irish were killed by the English and another 300,000 were sold as slaves. Ireland’s population fell from about 1,500,000 to 600,000 in one single decade. Families were ripped apart as the British did not allow Irish dads to take their wives and children with them across the Atlantic. This led to a helpless population of homeless women and children. Britain’s solution was to auction them off as well.
During the 1650s, over 100,000 Irish children between the ages of 10 and 14 were taken from their parents and sold as slaves in the West Indies, Virginia and New England. In this decade, 52,000 Irish (mostly women and children) were sold to Barbados and Virginia. Another 30,000 Irish men and women were also transported and sold to the highest bidder. In 1656, Cromwell ordered that 2000 Irish children be taken to Jamaica and sold as slaves to English settlers.
Many people today will avoid calling the Irish slaves what they truly were: Slaves. They’ll come up with terms like “Indentured Servants” to describe what occurred to the Irish. However, in most cases from the 17th and 18th centuries, Irish slaves were nothing more than human cattle.
As an example, the African slave trade was just beginning during this same period. It is well recorded that African slaves, not tainted with the stain of the hated Catholic theology and more expensive to purchase, were often treated far better than their Irish counterparts.
African slaves were very expensive during the late 1600s (50 Sterling). Irish slaves came cheap (no more than 5 Sterling). If a planter whipped or branded or beat an Irish slave to death, it was never a crime. A death was a monetary setback, but far cheaper than killing a more expensive African.
The English masters quickly began breeding the Irish women for both their own personal pleasure and for greater profit. Children of slaves were themselves slaves, which increased the size of the master’s free workforce. Even if an Irish woman somehow obtained her freedom, her kids would remain slaves of her master. Thus, Irish moms, even with this new found emancipation, would seldom abandon their kids and would remain in servitude.
In time, the English thought of a better way to use these women (in many cases, girls as young as 12) to increase their market share: The settlers began to breed Irish women and girls with African men to produce slaves with a distinct complexion. These new “mulatto” slaves brought a higher price than Irish livestock and, likewise, enabled the settlers to save money rather than purchase new African slaves.
This practice of interbreeding Irish females with African men went on for several decades and was so widespread that, in 1681, legislation was passed “forbidding the practice of mating Irish slave women to African slave men for the purpose of producing slaves for sale.” In short, it was stopped only because it interfered with the profits of a large slave transport company.
England continued to ship tens of thousands of Irish slaves for more than a century. Records state that, after the 1798 Irish Rebellion, thousands of Irish slaves were sold to both America and Australia.
There were horrible abuses of both African and Irish captives. One British ship even dumped 1,302 slaves into the Atlantic Ocean so that the crew would have plenty of food to eat.
There is little question that the Irish experienced the horrors of slavery as much (if not more in the 17th Century) as the Africans did. There is, also, very little question that those brown, tanned faces you witness in your travels to the West Indies are very likely a combination of African and Irish ancestry.
In 1839, Britain finally decided on it’s own to end it’s participation in Satan’s highway to hell and stopped transporting slaves. While their decision did not stop pirates from doing what they desired, the new law slowly concluded THIS chapter of nightmarish Irish misery.
But, if anyone, black or white, believes that slavery was only an African experience, then they’ve got it completely wrong.
Irish slavery is a subject worth remembering, not erasing from our memories. But, where are our public (and PRIVATE) schools???? Where are the history books? Why is it so seldom discussed?
Do the memories of hundreds of thousands of Irish victims merit more than a mention from an unknown writer? Or is their story to be one that their English pirates intended: To (unlike the African book) have the Irish story utterly and completely disappear as if it never happened.
None of the Irish victims ever made it back to their homeland to describe their ordeal. These are the lost slaves; the ones that time and biased history books conveniently forgot.
------
the Irish aren’t genetically white
Irish People are “Celtic” & have a different genetic make up than that of Other White Europeans……Like the english.
Although we as a people were actually the first kings of Europe we we’re a well travelled people who eventually settled in Ireland & Scotland….. hence the connection with the pair! The Celtics we’re - are a proud & culturally rich race of people who spent hundreds of years fighting English oppression. Not only on our own soil but also in the lslands of the caribbean & Bermuda and the U.S.A.. We are not to be confused as white Europeans….. WE ARE CELTS……… Tiocfaidh ar La….
By John Martin
They came as slaves; vast human cargo transported on tall British ships bound for the Americas. They were shipped by the hundreds of thousands and included men, women, and even the youngest of children.
Whenever they rebelled or even disobeyed an order, they were punished in the harshest ways. Slave owners would hang their human property by their hands and set their hands or feet on fire as one form of punishment. They were burned alive and had their heads placed on pikes in the marketplace as a warning to other captives.
We don’t really need to go through all of the gory details, do we? After all, we know all too well the atrocities of the African slave trade. But, are we talking about African slavery?
King James II and Charles I led a continued effort to enslave the Irish. Britain’s famed Oliver Cromwell furthered this practice of dehumanizing one’s next door neighbor.
The Irish slave trade began when James II sold 30,000 Irish prisoners as slaves to the New World. His Proclamation of 1625 required Irish political prisoners be sent overseas and sold to English settlers in the West Indies. By the mid 1600s, the Irish were the main slaves sold to Antigua and Montserrat. At that time, 70% of the total population of Montserrat were Irish slaves.
Ireland quickly became the biggest source of human livestock for English merchants. The majority of the early slaves to the New World were actually white.
From 1641 to 1652, over 500,000 Irish were killed by the English and another 300,000 were sold as slaves. Ireland’s population fell from about 1,500,000 to 600,000 in one single decade. Families were ripped apart as the British did not allow Irish dads to take their wives and children with them across the Atlantic. This led to a helpless population of homeless women and children. Britain’s solution was to auction them off as well.
During the 1650s, over 100,000 Irish children between the ages of 10 and 14 were taken from their parents and sold as slaves in the West Indies, Virginia and New England. In this decade, 52,000 Irish (mostly women and children) were sold to Barbados and Virginia. Another 30,000 Irish men and women were also transported and sold to the highest bidder. In 1656, Cromwell ordered that 2000 Irish children be taken to Jamaica and sold as slaves to English settlers.
Many people today will avoid calling the Irish slaves what they truly were: Slaves. They’ll come up with terms like “Indentured Servants” to describe what occurred to the Irish. However, in most cases from the 17th and 18th centuries, Irish slaves were nothing more than human cattle.
As an example, the African slave trade was just beginning during this same period. It is well recorded that African slaves, not tainted with the stain of the hated Catholic theology and more expensive to purchase, were often treated far better than their Irish counterparts.
African slaves were very expensive during the late 1600s (50 Sterling). Irish slaves came cheap (no more than 5 Sterling). If a planter whipped or branded or beat an Irish slave to death, it was never a crime. A death was a monetary setback, but far cheaper than killing a more expensive African.
The English masters quickly began breeding the Irish women for both their own personal pleasure and for greater profit. Children of slaves were themselves slaves, which increased the size of the master’s free workforce. Even if an Irish woman somehow obtained her freedom, her kids would remain slaves of her master. Thus, Irish moms, even with this new found emancipation, would seldom abandon their kids and would remain in servitude.
In time, the English thought of a better way to use these women (in many cases, girls as young as 12) to increase their market share: The settlers began to breed Irish women and girls with African men to produce slaves with a distinct complexion. These new “mulatto” slaves brought a higher price than Irish livestock and, likewise, enabled the settlers to save money rather than purchase new African slaves.
This practice of interbreeding Irish females with African men went on for several decades and was so widespread that, in 1681, legislation was passed “forbidding the practice of mating Irish slave women to African slave men for the purpose of producing slaves for sale.” In short, it was stopped only because it interfered with the profits of a large slave transport company.
England continued to ship tens of thousands of Irish slaves for more than a century. Records state that, after the 1798 Irish Rebellion, thousands of Irish slaves were sold to both America and Australia.
There were horrible abuses of both African and Irish captives. One British ship even dumped 1,302 slaves into the Atlantic Ocean so that the crew would have plenty of food to eat.
There is little question that the Irish experienced the horrors of slavery as much (if not more in the 17th Century) as the Africans did. There is, also, very little question that those brown, tanned faces you witness in your travels to the West Indies are very likely a combination of African and Irish ancestry.
In 1839, Britain finally decided on it’s own to end it’s participation in Satan’s highway to hell and stopped transporting slaves. While their decision did not stop pirates from doing what they desired, the new law slowly concluded THIS chapter of nightmarish Irish misery.
But, if anyone, black or white, believes that slavery was only an African experience, then they’ve got it completely wrong.
Irish slavery is a subject worth remembering, not erasing from our memories. But, where are our public (and PRIVATE) schools???? Where are the history books? Why is it so seldom discussed?
Do the memories of hundreds of thousands of Irish victims merit more than a mention from an unknown writer? Or is their story to be one that their English pirates intended: To (unlike the African book) have the Irish story utterly and completely disappear as if it never happened.
None of the Irish victims ever made it back to their homeland to describe their ordeal. These are the lost slaves; the ones that time and biased history books conveniently forgot.
------
the Irish aren’t genetically white
Irish People are “Celtic” & have a different genetic make up than that of Other White Europeans……Like the english.
Although we as a people were actually the first kings of Europe we we’re a well travelled people who eventually settled in Ireland & Scotland….. hence the connection with the pair! The Celtics we’re - are a proud & culturally rich race of people who spent hundreds of years fighting English oppression. Not only on our own soil but also in the lslands of the caribbean & Bermuda and the U.S.A.. We are not to be confused as white Europeans….. WE ARE CELTS……… Tiocfaidh ar La….
THE IRISH SLAVES
At the beginning of the 17th Century, in the reign of James I of England, England faced a problem: what to do with the Irish. They had been practicing genocide against the Irish since the reign of Elizabeth, but they couldn't kill them all. Some had been banished, and some had gone into voluntary exile, but there were still just too many of them.
So James I encouraged the sale of the Irish as slaves to the New World colonies, not only America but Barbados and South America. The first recorded sale of Irish slaves was to a settlement along the Amazon in South America in 1612. However, before that there were probably many unofficial arrangements, since the Irish were of no importance and details of how they were dealt with were not deemed necessary.
In 1625, the King issued a proclamation that all Irish political prisoners were to be transported to the West Indies and sold as slave labor to the planters there. In 1637, a census showed that 69% of the inhabitants of Monsarrat in the West Indies were Irish slaves. The Irish had a tendency to die in the heat, and were not as well suited to the work as African slaves, but African slaves had to be bought. Irish slaves could be kidnapped if there weren't enough prisoners, and of course, it was easy enough to make Irish prisoners by manufacturing some petty crime or other. This made the Irish the preferred "livestock" for English slave traders for 200 years.
In 1641, one of the periodic wars in which the Irish tried to overthrow the English misrule in their land took place. As always, this rebellion eventually failed. As a result, in the 12 years following the revolt, known as the Confederation War, the Irish population fell from 1,466,000 to 616,000. Over 550,000 Irishmen were killed, and 300,000 were sold as slaves. The women and children who were left homeless and destitute had to be dealt with , so they were rounded up and sold, too.
But even though it did not seem that things could get worse, with the advent of Oliver Cromwell, they did. In the 1650's, thousands more Irish were killed, and many more were sold into slavery. Over 100,000 Irish Catholic children were taken from their parents and sold as slaves, many to Virginia and New England. Unbelievably but truly, from 1651 to 1660 there were more Irish slaves in America than the entire non-slave population of the colonies!
In 1652, Cromwell instigated the Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland. He demanded that all Irish people were to resettle west of the Shannon, in arid, uninhabitable land, or be transported to the West Indies. The Irish refused to relocate peaceably, for the most part, since they couldn't survive if they did.
A law, published in 1657, read:
"Those who fail to transplant themselves into Connaught
(Ireland's Western Province) or (County) Clare within six
months... Shall be attained of high treason... Are to be sent
into America or some other parts beyond the seas..."(1)
Any who attempted to return would
"suffer the pains of death as
felons by virtue of this act, without benefit of Clergy."(2)
The soldiers were encouraged to kill the Irish who refused to move; it was certainly not considered a crime. But the slave trade was so profitable that it was much more lucrative to round them up and sell them. Gangs went out to fill quotas by capturing whoever came across their path; they were so industrious that they accidentally captured a number of French and English and several thousand Scots in the process. By Cromwell's death, at least 100,000 Irish men, women, and children had been sold in the West Indies, Virginia, and New England. While most were sold to the sugar planters in Barbados, Jamaica and throughout the West Indies, some writers assert that at least 20,000 were sold to the American colonies. (3) The earliest record of Irish slaves in America was in 1620, with the arrival of
200 slaves. Most of the documentation, however, comes from the West Indies.
In 1742, a document entitled Thurloe's State Papers, published in London, opined that:
"..It was a measure beneficial to Ireland, which was
thus relieved of a population that might trouble the planters; it
was a benefit to the people removed, which might thus be made
English and Christians ... a great benefit to the West India
sugar planters, who desired men and boys for their bondsmen, and
the women and Irish girls... To solace them."(4)
Note the chilling insouciance of the purpose stated for the women and Irish girls. . to "solace" the sugar planters. Also, to our way of thinking, the Irish were Christians, but to the Protestant English, Catholics were considered Papist, and Papists weren't Christians.
So for the entire 17th Century, from 1600 until 1699, there were many more Irish sold as slaves than Africans. There are records of Irish slaves well into the 18th Century.
Many never made it off the ships. According to written record, in at least one incident 132 slaves, men, women, and children, were dumped overboard to drown because ships' supplies were running low. They were drowned because the insurance would pay for an "accident," but not if the slaves were allowed to starve. Typical death rates on the ships were from 37% to 50%.
In the West Indies, the African and Irish slaves were housed together, but because the African slaves were much more costly, they were treated much better than the Irish slaves. Also, the Irish were Catholic, and Papists were hated among the Protestant planters. An Irish slave would endure such treatment as having his hands and feet set on fire or being strung up and beaten for even a small infraction. Richard Ligon, who witnessed these things first-hand and recorded them in a history of Barbados he published in 1657, stated:
"Truly, I have seen cruelty there done to servants as I did not think one Christian could
have done to another."(5)
According to Sean O'Callahan, in To Hell or Barbados, Irish men and women were inspected like cattle there, just as the Africans were. In addition, Irish slaves, who were harder to distinguish from their owners since they shared the same skin color, were branded with the owner's initials, the women on the forearm and the men on the buttocks. O'Callahan goes on to say that the women were not only sold to the planters as sexual slaves but were often sold to local brothels as well. He states that the black or mulatto overseers also often forced the women to strip while working in the fields and often used them sexually as well.(6)
The one advantage the Irish slaves had over the African slaves was that since they were literate and they did not survive well in the fields, they were generally used as house servants, accountants, and teachers. But the gentility of the service did not correlate to the punishment for infractions. Flogging was common, and most slave owners did not really care if they killed an easily replaceable, cheap Irish slave.
While most of these slaves who survived were eventually freed after their time of service was completed, many leaving the islands for the American colonies, many were not, and the planters found another way to insure a free supply of valuable slaves. They were quick to "find solace" and start breeding with the Irish slave women. Many of them were very pretty, but more than that, while most of the Irish were sold for only a period of service, usually about 10 years assuming they survived, their children were born slaves for life. The planters knew that most of the mothers would remain in servitude to remain with their children even after their service was technically up.
The planters also began to breed the Irish women with the African male slaves to make lighter skinned slaves, because the lighter skinned slaves were more desirable and could be sold for more money. A law was passed against this practice in 1681, not for moral reasons but because the practice was causing the Royal African Company to lose money. According to James F. Cavanaugh, this company, sent 249 shiploads of slaves to the West Indies in the 1680's, a total of 60,000 African and Irish, 14,000 of whom died in passage.(7)
While the trade in Irish slaves tapered off after the defeat of King James in 1691, England once again shipped out thousands of Irish prisoners who were taken after the Irish Rebellion of 1798. These prisoners were shipped to America and to Australia, specifically to be sold as slaves.
No Irish slave shipped to the West Indies or America has ever been known to have returned to Ireland. Many died, either in passage or from abuse or overwork. Others won their freedom and emigrated to the American colonies. Still others remained in the West Indies, which still contain an population of "Black Irish," many the descendents of the children of black slaves and Irish slaves.
In 1688, the first woman killed in Cotton Mather's witch trials in Massachusetts was an old Irish woman named Anne Glover, who had been captured and sold as a slave in 1650. She spoke no English. She could recite The Lord's Prayer in Gaelic and Latin, but without English, Mather decided her Gaelic was discourse with the devil, and hung her.(8)
It was not until 1839 that a law was passed in England ending the slave trade, and thus the trade in Irish slaves.
It is unfortunate that, while the descendents of black slaves have kept their history alive and not allowed their atrocity to be forgotten, the Irish heritage of slavery in America and the West Indies has been largely ignored or forgotten. It is my hope that this article will help in some small way to change that and to commemorate these unfortunate people.
since coldblooded and grapes want to discuss slavery I thought I'd add this info about my heritage
At the beginning of the 17th Century, in the reign of James I of England, England faced a problem: what to do with the Irish. They had been practicing genocide against the Irish since the reign of Elizabeth, but they couldn't kill them all. Some had been banished, and some had gone into voluntary exile, but there were still just too many of them.
So James I encouraged the sale of the Irish as slaves to the New World colonies, not only America but Barbados and South America. The first recorded sale of Irish slaves was to a settlement along the Amazon in South America in 1612. However, before that there were probably many unofficial arrangements, since the Irish were of no importance and details of how they were dealt with were not deemed necessary.
In 1625, the King issued a proclamation that all Irish political prisoners were to be transported to the West Indies and sold as slave labor to the planters there. In 1637, a census showed that 69% of the inhabitants of Monsarrat in the West Indies were Irish slaves. The Irish had a tendency to die in the heat, and were not as well suited to the work as African slaves, but African slaves had to be bought. Irish slaves could be kidnapped if there weren't enough prisoners, and of course, it was easy enough to make Irish prisoners by manufacturing some petty crime or other. This made the Irish the preferred "livestock" for English slave traders for 200 years.
In 1641, one of the periodic wars in which the Irish tried to overthrow the English misrule in their land took place. As always, this rebellion eventually failed. As a result, in the 12 years following the revolt, known as the Confederation War, the Irish population fell from 1,466,000 to 616,000. Over 550,000 Irishmen were killed, and 300,000 were sold as slaves. The women and children who were left homeless and destitute had to be dealt with , so they were rounded up and sold, too.
But even though it did not seem that things could get worse, with the advent of Oliver Cromwell, they did. In the 1650's, thousands more Irish were killed, and many more were sold into slavery. Over 100,000 Irish Catholic children were taken from their parents and sold as slaves, many to Virginia and New England. Unbelievably but truly, from 1651 to 1660 there were more Irish slaves in America than the entire non-slave population of the colonies!
In 1652, Cromwell instigated the Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland. He demanded that all Irish people were to resettle west of the Shannon, in arid, uninhabitable land, or be transported to the West Indies. The Irish refused to relocate peaceably, for the most part, since they couldn't survive if they did.
A law, published in 1657, read:
"Those who fail to transplant themselves into Connaught
(Ireland's Western Province) or (County) Clare within six
months... Shall be attained of high treason... Are to be sent
into America or some other parts beyond the seas..."(1)
Any who attempted to return would
"suffer the pains of death as
felons by virtue of this act, without benefit of Clergy."(2)
The soldiers were encouraged to kill the Irish who refused to move; it was certainly not considered a crime. But the slave trade was so profitable that it was much more lucrative to round them up and sell them. Gangs went out to fill quotas by capturing whoever came across their path; they were so industrious that they accidentally captured a number of French and English and several thousand Scots in the process. By Cromwell's death, at least 100,000 Irish men, women, and children had been sold in the West Indies, Virginia, and New England. While most were sold to the sugar planters in Barbados, Jamaica and throughout the West Indies, some writers assert that at least 20,000 were sold to the American colonies. (3) The earliest record of Irish slaves in America was in 1620, with the arrival of
200 slaves. Most of the documentation, however, comes from the West Indies.
In 1742, a document entitled Thurloe's State Papers, published in London, opined that:
"..It was a measure beneficial to Ireland, which was
thus relieved of a population that might trouble the planters; it
was a benefit to the people removed, which might thus be made
English and Christians ... a great benefit to the West India
sugar planters, who desired men and boys for their bondsmen, and
the women and Irish girls... To solace them."(4)
Note the chilling insouciance of the purpose stated for the women and Irish girls. . to "solace" the sugar planters. Also, to our way of thinking, the Irish were Christians, but to the Protestant English, Catholics were considered Papist, and Papists weren't Christians.
So for the entire 17th Century, from 1600 until 1699, there were many more Irish sold as slaves than Africans. There are records of Irish slaves well into the 18th Century.
Many never made it off the ships. According to written record, in at least one incident 132 slaves, men, women, and children, were dumped overboard to drown because ships' supplies were running low. They were drowned because the insurance would pay for an "accident," but not if the slaves were allowed to starve. Typical death rates on the ships were from 37% to 50%.
In the West Indies, the African and Irish slaves were housed together, but because the African slaves were much more costly, they were treated much better than the Irish slaves. Also, the Irish were Catholic, and Papists were hated among the Protestant planters. An Irish slave would endure such treatment as having his hands and feet set on fire or being strung up and beaten for even a small infraction. Richard Ligon, who witnessed these things first-hand and recorded them in a history of Barbados he published in 1657, stated:
"Truly, I have seen cruelty there done to servants as I did not think one Christian could
have done to another."(5)
According to Sean O'Callahan, in To Hell or Barbados, Irish men and women were inspected like cattle there, just as the Africans were. In addition, Irish slaves, who were harder to distinguish from their owners since they shared the same skin color, were branded with the owner's initials, the women on the forearm and the men on the buttocks. O'Callahan goes on to say that the women were not only sold to the planters as sexual slaves but were often sold to local brothels as well. He states that the black or mulatto overseers also often forced the women to strip while working in the fields and often used them sexually as well.(6)
The one advantage the Irish slaves had over the African slaves was that since they were literate and they did not survive well in the fields, they were generally used as house servants, accountants, and teachers. But the gentility of the service did not correlate to the punishment for infractions. Flogging was common, and most slave owners did not really care if they killed an easily replaceable, cheap Irish slave.
While most of these slaves who survived were eventually freed after their time of service was completed, many leaving the islands for the American colonies, many were not, and the planters found another way to insure a free supply of valuable slaves. They were quick to "find solace" and start breeding with the Irish slave women. Many of them were very pretty, but more than that, while most of the Irish were sold for only a period of service, usually about 10 years assuming they survived, their children were born slaves for life. The planters knew that most of the mothers would remain in servitude to remain with their children even after their service was technically up.
The planters also began to breed the Irish women with the African male slaves to make lighter skinned slaves, because the lighter skinned slaves were more desirable and could be sold for more money. A law was passed against this practice in 1681, not for moral reasons but because the practice was causing the Royal African Company to lose money. According to James F. Cavanaugh, this company, sent 249 shiploads of slaves to the West Indies in the 1680's, a total of 60,000 African and Irish, 14,000 of whom died in passage.(7)
While the trade in Irish slaves tapered off after the defeat of King James in 1691, England once again shipped out thousands of Irish prisoners who were taken after the Irish Rebellion of 1798. These prisoners were shipped to America and to Australia, specifically to be sold as slaves.
No Irish slave shipped to the West Indies or America has ever been known to have returned to Ireland. Many died, either in passage or from abuse or overwork. Others won their freedom and emigrated to the American colonies. Still others remained in the West Indies, which still contain an population of "Black Irish," many the descendents of the children of black slaves and Irish slaves.
In 1688, the first woman killed in Cotton Mather's witch trials in Massachusetts was an old Irish woman named Anne Glover, who had been captured and sold as a slave in 1650. She spoke no English. She could recite The Lord's Prayer in Gaelic and Latin, but without English, Mather decided her Gaelic was discourse with the devil, and hung her.(8)
It was not until 1839 that a law was passed in England ending the slave trade, and thus the trade in Irish slaves.
It is unfortunate that, while the descendents of black slaves have kept their history alive and not allowed their atrocity to be forgotten, the Irish heritage of slavery in America and the West Indies has been largely ignored or forgotten. It is my hope that this article will help in some small way to change that and to commemorate these unfortunate people.
since coldblooded and grapes want to discuss slavery I thought I'd add this info about my heritage
ENGLAND'S IRISH SLAVES
by Robert E. West
PEC Illinois State Director*
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Records are replete with references to early Irish Catholics in
the West Indies. Gwynn in Analecta Hibernica, states: 'The
earliest reference to the Irish is the establishment of an Irish
settlement on the Amazon River in 1612."(1) Smith, in Colonists
in Bondage, reports: "a Proclamation of the year 1625 urged the
banishing overseas of dangerous rogues (Irish Political
Prisoners); kidnapping (of Irish) was common."(2)
Condon states that the first considerable emigration from
Ireland to the southern latitudes of America was to Guiana in
1629.(3) Newton declares that Antigua and Montserrat were
occupied as early as 1632 and that many emigrant Irish came out
among the early planters and servants in these islands.(4) Dunn,
in Sugar and Slaves, asserts that, in 1636, Ireland was already a
prime source of supply for servants: as early as 1637, on
Montserrat the Irish heavily outnumbered the English colonists,
and 69 percent of Montserrat's white inhabitants were Irish.(5)
Lenihan writes: in 1650 "25,000 Irishmen sold as slaves in Saint
Kitt's and the adjoining islands, petitioned for a priest..."(6)
In 1641, Ireland's population was 1,466,000 and in 1652,
616,000. According to Sir William Petty, 850,000 were wasted by
the sword, plague, famine, hardship and banishment during the
Confederation War 1641-1652. At the end of the war, vast numbers
of Irish men, women and children were forcibly transported to the
American colonies by the English government.(7) These people were
rounded up like cattle, and, as Prendergast reports on Thurloe's
State Papers(8) (Pub. London, 1742), "In clearing the ground for
the adventurers and soldiers (the English capitalists of that
day)... To be transported to Barbados and the English plantations
in America. It was a measure beneficial to Ireland, which was
thus relieved of a population that might trouble the planters; it
was a benefit to the people removed, which might thus be made
English and Christians ... a great benefit to the West India
sugar planters, who desired men and boys for their bondsmen, and
the women and Irish girls... To solace them."(9)
J. Williams provides additional evidence of the attitude of the English
government towards the Irish in an English law of June 26, 1657:
"Those who fail to transplant themselves into Connaught
(Ireland's Western Province) or (County) Clare within six
months... Shall be attained of high treason... Are to be sent
into America or some other parts beyond the seas..."(10) Those
thus banished who return are to "suffer the pains of death as
felons by virtue of this act, without benefit of Clergy."(11)
The following are but a few of the numerous references to
those Irish transported against their will between 1651 and 1660.
Emmet asserts that during this time, more that "100,000
young children who were orphans or had been taken from their
Catholic parents, were sent abroad into slavery in the West
Indies, Virginia and New England, that they might lose their
faith and all knowledge of their nationality, for in most
instances even their names were changed... Moreover, the
contemporary writers assert between 20,000 and 30,000 men and
women who were taken prisoner were sold in the American colonies
as slaves, with no respect to their former station in life."(12)
Dunn claims in Barbados the Irish Catholics constituted the
largest block of servants on the island.(13) Higham estimated
that in 1652 Barbados had absorbed no less than 12,000 of these
political prisoners.(14) E. Williams reports: "In 1656 Cromwell's
Council of State voted that 1,000 Irish girls and 1,000 Irish
young men be sent to Jamaica."(15) Smith declares: "it is
impossible to say how many shiploads of unhappy Irish were
dispatched to America by the English government," and "no mention
of such shipments would be very likely to appear in the State
Papers... They must have been very considerable in number."(16)
Estimates vary between 80,000 and 130,000 regarding the
amount of Irish sent into slavery in America and the West Indies
during the years of 1651 - 1660: Prendergast says 80,000(17);
Boudin 100,000(18); Emmet 120,000 to 130,000(19); Lingard 60,000
up until 1656(20); and Condon estimates "the number of Irish
transported to the British colonies in America from 1651 - 1660
exceeded the total number of their inhabitants at that period, a
fact which ought not to be lost sight of by those who undertake
to estimate the strength of the Celtic element in this
nation..."(21)
It is impossible to ascertain the exact number of those
unfortunate victims of English injustice during this period, but
we do know the amount was massive. Even though the figures given
above are but estimates, they are estimates from eminent
historians.
The flow of the Irish to the American colonies throughout
the remainder of the 17th century was large and continuous, but
not nearly as massive as between 1651 and 1660. Some of the many
statements by historians give evidence of this Irish tide. Higham
reports that in 1664 the Irish took the place of the French on
St. Bartholomew's.(22) Smith claims that during the four years
leading up to 1675, already 500 Irish servants were brought to
Jamaica by ships from Bristol, England that stopped in Ireland
for provisions.(23) During 1680 on the Leeward Islands, Dunn
posits: "with so many Irish Catholic servants and farmers... The
English planters became obsessed with the fear of popery."(24)
Dunn also states that in Jamaica in 1685 the 2nd Duke of
Aberlmarle, after his appointment by James II, a Catholic,
mustered his chief support from the Irish Catholic small planters
and servants and that the indentured servants who constituted the
island militia were mainly Irish Catholic.(25) In reporting on
Father Garganel's statements, Lenihan claims: "in 1699 Father
Garganel, S.J., Superior of the island of Martinique, asked for
one or two Irish Fathers for that and the neighboring isles which
were 'fill of Irish' for every year shiploads of men, boys and
girls, partly crimped, partly carried off by main force for the
purposes of slave trade, are conveyed by the English from
Ireland."(26)
Smith has recorded that "Servants sailed from every port in
the British Isles, but by far the greater number came from
London, Bristol, Liverpool, Dublin and Cork, and, doubtless, it
was principally the merchants of Bristol, Whitehaven and
Liverpool which conducted trade with Ireland."(27) Emmet
clarifies Smith's statement in detail by asserting: "the early
and continued emigration of the Irish to this country during the
17th century has been lost sight of in consequence of this change
to English surnames and from the fact that no vessel was
knowingly allowed to sail from Ireland direct, but by law was
obliged first to visit an English port before clearance papers
could be obtained. Consequently, every Irish emigrant (slave,
servant, etc..) crossing in an Irish or English vessel from
either England or Ireland, appeared in the official records as
English, for the voyage did not begin according to law until the
ship cleared from an English port, and all passengers on arrival
in this country (American Colonies) were rated as English."(28)
It is also of importance to be aware of the fact, as Dunn
confirmed, that most population lists for Barbados, Jamaica and
the Leeward Islands concern only parish registers of the Church
of England, all other people were essentially ignored in the head
count."(29)
The English government variously referred to Irish to be
transported as rogues, vagabonds, rebels, neutrals, felons,
military prisoners, teachers, priests, maidens etc. All
historians call them servants, bondsman, indentured servants,
slaves, etc., and agree that they were all political victims. The
plain facts are that most were treated as slaves. After their
land was confiscated by England, which drove them from their
ancestral homes to forage for roots like animals, they were
kidnapped, rounded up and driven like cattle to waiting ships and
transported to English colonies in America, never to see their
country again. They were the victims of what many called the
immense "Irish Slave Trade."
All writers on the 17th century American colonies are in
agreement that the treatment of white servants or white slaves in
English colonies was cruel to the extreme, worse than that of
black slaves; that inhuman treatment was the norm, that torture
(and branding FT, fugitive traitor, on the forehead) was the
punishment for attempted escape. Dunn stated: "Servants were
punished by whipping, strung up by the hands and matches lighted
between their fingers, beaten over the head until blood ran,"
--all this on the slightest provocation.(30) Ligon, an eyewitness
in Barbados from 1647-1650 said, "Truly, I have seen cruelty
there done to servants as I did not think one Christian could
have done to another."(31)
It is a matter of great importance to realize that most of
the white slaves, servants and small farmers abandoned the West
Indies for the mainland colonies in America. Dunn reports:
"Between 1678 and 1713, Leeward sugar planters became more rich
and powerful and controlled all local councils and assemblies so
white servants and small farmers abandoned the Leeward
Islands."(32) Craven said that between 1643 and 1667, about
12,000 left Barbados for other plantations(33) and Dunn said the
white population of the Leeward Islands was reduced by 30 percent
between 1678 and 1708.(34) According to Craven, in Colonies in
Transition, prior to the 1680's, the hopes which sustained the
Carolina venture continued to depend chiefly upon the migration
of settlers from the older colonies, especially from the West
Indies.(35) Smith asserted that after 1670, the emigration of
whites from the smaller islands at least equalled the
immigration.(36) Condon declared: "In [the] course of time many
of those who had been transported to the West Indies in this
manner found their way to the colonies on the continent, in
search of greater freedom and a more healthful climate."(37)
All writers on the 17th century history agree that between
one-half and two thirds of white immigrants in the British West
Indies and mainland America were servants, most of them severely
mistreated. Most all Irish immigrants were 'servants.' Irish were
almost exclusively Catholic (at least they were when they left
Ireland) and most were of ancient Irish families even though they
appeared in English records as English, if recorded at all.
After 20,000 Puritans arrived in the American colonies from
1630-1640, migration of English colonists all but subsided. Some
writers say after 1640 only a trickle of English colonists
arrived. In 1632, many Irish were on Antigua. In 1637, 69 percent
of whites on Montserrat were Irish. In 1650, 25,000 Irish were on
St. Kitt's and Nevis and some were on other Leeward islands. In
1652, prior to the wholesale transportation of Irish, most of 12
thousand political prisoners on Barbados were Irish.
From 1651 to 1660, between 80,000 to 130,000 Irish were
transported. From 1660-1700, there was a large steady flow of
Irish immigrants. Most whites, especially servants, slaves and
small farmers went to the American mainland for more freedom, a
healthier climate and economic betterment.
There are no verifiable records on the white population of
all the American colonies in the 17th century. Some estimates
include blacks, some do not. Some list only members of the Church
of England. Estimates are made for Barbados for a certain year
while estimates are made for the Leeward Islands for other years.
The same applies to Jamaica and the mainland colonies. One
estimate for the mainland colonies, white and black included, was
given at 204,000 in 1689.
In the absence of reliable records, I believe it is necessary
to take the following into very serious consideration: migration
trends, prolificness of people of varying national origin, laws in
effect in the country from which people migrated; the prevailing
conditions in the country undergoing emigration; the amount of
control the emigrating people had over their own destiny; and the
fact that all American colonies both mainland and the West Indies
were very intertwined,
Well over one-half of white immigrants to the
West Indies during the 17th century were Irish Catholic servants,
most who, in the course of time, abandoned the West Indies for
the mainland American colonies.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
*This article comes from the newsletter of the:
Political Education Committee (PEC)
American Ireland Education Foundation
54 South Liberty Drive, Suite 401
Stony Point NY 10980
1-914-947-2726
Its use does not imply their approval of The CATHOLIC Weekly nor
do we necessarily guarantee their perfection. The article is
consistant with the conditions which occurred durring the English
"Reformation." -Ed.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Bibliography
Aubrey Gwynn, S.J., Documents relating to Irish in the West
Indies -- Analecta Hibernica
Page: 153
Note: 1
Edward O'Meagher Condon, The Irish Race in America, New York,
A.E. and R.E. Ford, 1887
Page: 15 41 38,9
Note: 3 21 37
Arthur Percoval Newton, The European Nations in the West Indies
1493-1688, London, J. Dickens & Co, Reprint 1967
Page: 163
Note: 4
Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, Chapel Hill, NC, U of NC
Press, 1972
Page: 56, 122, 130 ? 133 160
Note: 5 13 24 25
Page: 327 ? 131 141
Note: 29 30 32 34
Maurice Lenihan, History of Limerick, Cork, Mercier, ?
Page: 668,9 669
Note: 6 26
John P. Prendergast, The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland,
Dublin, ?, 1865
Note: 9 17
Sir William Petty, Political Anatomy of Ireland, London, ?, 1719
Page: 19
Note: 7
John Thurloe, Letter of Henry Cromwell, 4th Thurloe's State
Papers, London, 1742
Note: 8
Thomas Addis Emmet, Ireland Under English Rule, NY & London,
Putnam, 1903
Page: 101, vol I 101, vol I 211,2
Note: 12 19 28
Joseph J. Williams, Whence the "Black Irish" of Jamaica, NY,
Dial, MCMXXXII
Page: 17 17
Note: 10 11
Anthony Broudine, Propuguaculum, Pragae Anno, 1669
Note: 18
Dr. John Lingard, History of England, Edinburgh, ? ,1902
Page: 336, vol X
Note: 20
Abbot E. Smith, Colonists in Bondage, 1607-1776, Glouster, Mass,
Smith, 1965
Page: 164 165 334 209 336
Note: 2 16 23 27 36
C. S. S. Higham, The Development of the Leeward Islands Under the
Restoration, 1660-1688, London,
Cambridge, 1921
Page: 4 47
Note: 14 22
Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of Barbadoes, London,
Cass, 1657, reprinted 1976
Page: 44
Note: 31
Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro, 1492-1969, New York,
Harper and Roe, 1971
Page: 101
Note: 15
Wesley Frank Craven, The Colonies in Transition, 1660-1713, New
York, Harper and Roe, 1968
Page: 55 58
Note: 33 35
---------------------------------------
<CW> Copyright The CATHOLIC Weekly 1995
Use with acknowledgement permitted.
[email protected]
---------------------------------------
Provided courtesy of:
Eternal Word Television Network
5817 Old Leeds Road
Irondale, AL 35210
www.ewtn.com
by Robert E. West
PEC Illinois State Director*
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Records are replete with references to early Irish Catholics in
the West Indies. Gwynn in Analecta Hibernica, states: 'The
earliest reference to the Irish is the establishment of an Irish
settlement on the Amazon River in 1612."(1) Smith, in Colonists
in Bondage, reports: "a Proclamation of the year 1625 urged the
banishing overseas of dangerous rogues (Irish Political
Prisoners); kidnapping (of Irish) was common."(2)
Condon states that the first considerable emigration from
Ireland to the southern latitudes of America was to Guiana in
1629.(3) Newton declares that Antigua and Montserrat were
occupied as early as 1632 and that many emigrant Irish came out
among the early planters and servants in these islands.(4) Dunn,
in Sugar and Slaves, asserts that, in 1636, Ireland was already a
prime source of supply for servants: as early as 1637, on
Montserrat the Irish heavily outnumbered the English colonists,
and 69 percent of Montserrat's white inhabitants were Irish.(5)
Lenihan writes: in 1650 "25,000 Irishmen sold as slaves in Saint
Kitt's and the adjoining islands, petitioned for a priest..."(6)
In 1641, Ireland's population was 1,466,000 and in 1652,
616,000. According to Sir William Petty, 850,000 were wasted by
the sword, plague, famine, hardship and banishment during the
Confederation War 1641-1652. At the end of the war, vast numbers
of Irish men, women and children were forcibly transported to the
American colonies by the English government.(7) These people were
rounded up like cattle, and, as Prendergast reports on Thurloe's
State Papers(8) (Pub. London, 1742), "In clearing the ground for
the adventurers and soldiers (the English capitalists of that
day)... To be transported to Barbados and the English plantations
in America. It was a measure beneficial to Ireland, which was
thus relieved of a population that might trouble the planters; it
was a benefit to the people removed, which might thus be made
English and Christians ... a great benefit to the West India
sugar planters, who desired men and boys for their bondsmen, and
the women and Irish girls... To solace them."(9)
J. Williams provides additional evidence of the attitude of the English
government towards the Irish in an English law of June 26, 1657:
"Those who fail to transplant themselves into Connaught
(Ireland's Western Province) or (County) Clare within six
months... Shall be attained of high treason... Are to be sent
into America or some other parts beyond the seas..."(10) Those
thus banished who return are to "suffer the pains of death as
felons by virtue of this act, without benefit of Clergy."(11)
The following are but a few of the numerous references to
those Irish transported against their will between 1651 and 1660.
Emmet asserts that during this time, more that "100,000
young children who were orphans or had been taken from their
Catholic parents, were sent abroad into slavery in the West
Indies, Virginia and New England, that they might lose their
faith and all knowledge of their nationality, for in most
instances even their names were changed... Moreover, the
contemporary writers assert between 20,000 and 30,000 men and
women who were taken prisoner were sold in the American colonies
as slaves, with no respect to their former station in life."(12)
Dunn claims in Barbados the Irish Catholics constituted the
largest block of servants on the island.(13) Higham estimated
that in 1652 Barbados had absorbed no less than 12,000 of these
political prisoners.(14) E. Williams reports: "In 1656 Cromwell's
Council of State voted that 1,000 Irish girls and 1,000 Irish
young men be sent to Jamaica."(15) Smith declares: "it is
impossible to say how many shiploads of unhappy Irish were
dispatched to America by the English government," and "no mention
of such shipments would be very likely to appear in the State
Papers... They must have been very considerable in number."(16)
Estimates vary between 80,000 and 130,000 regarding the
amount of Irish sent into slavery in America and the West Indies
during the years of 1651 - 1660: Prendergast says 80,000(17);
Boudin 100,000(18); Emmet 120,000 to 130,000(19); Lingard 60,000
up until 1656(20); and Condon estimates "the number of Irish
transported to the British colonies in America from 1651 - 1660
exceeded the total number of their inhabitants at that period, a
fact which ought not to be lost sight of by those who undertake
to estimate the strength of the Celtic element in this
nation..."(21)
It is impossible to ascertain the exact number of those
unfortunate victims of English injustice during this period, but
we do know the amount was massive. Even though the figures given
above are but estimates, they are estimates from eminent
historians.
The flow of the Irish to the American colonies throughout
the remainder of the 17th century was large and continuous, but
not nearly as massive as between 1651 and 1660. Some of the many
statements by historians give evidence of this Irish tide. Higham
reports that in 1664 the Irish took the place of the French on
St. Bartholomew's.(22) Smith claims that during the four years
leading up to 1675, already 500 Irish servants were brought to
Jamaica by ships from Bristol, England that stopped in Ireland
for provisions.(23) During 1680 on the Leeward Islands, Dunn
posits: "with so many Irish Catholic servants and farmers... The
English planters became obsessed with the fear of popery."(24)
Dunn also states that in Jamaica in 1685 the 2nd Duke of
Aberlmarle, after his appointment by James II, a Catholic,
mustered his chief support from the Irish Catholic small planters
and servants and that the indentured servants who constituted the
island militia were mainly Irish Catholic.(25) In reporting on
Father Garganel's statements, Lenihan claims: "in 1699 Father
Garganel, S.J., Superior of the island of Martinique, asked for
one or two Irish Fathers for that and the neighboring isles which
were 'fill of Irish' for every year shiploads of men, boys and
girls, partly crimped, partly carried off by main force for the
purposes of slave trade, are conveyed by the English from
Ireland."(26)
Smith has recorded that "Servants sailed from every port in
the British Isles, but by far the greater number came from
London, Bristol, Liverpool, Dublin and Cork, and, doubtless, it
was principally the merchants of Bristol, Whitehaven and
Liverpool which conducted trade with Ireland."(27) Emmet
clarifies Smith's statement in detail by asserting: "the early
and continued emigration of the Irish to this country during the
17th century has been lost sight of in consequence of this change
to English surnames and from the fact that no vessel was
knowingly allowed to sail from Ireland direct, but by law was
obliged first to visit an English port before clearance papers
could be obtained. Consequently, every Irish emigrant (slave,
servant, etc..) crossing in an Irish or English vessel from
either England or Ireland, appeared in the official records as
English, for the voyage did not begin according to law until the
ship cleared from an English port, and all passengers on arrival
in this country (American Colonies) were rated as English."(28)
It is also of importance to be aware of the fact, as Dunn
confirmed, that most population lists for Barbados, Jamaica and
the Leeward Islands concern only parish registers of the Church
of England, all other people were essentially ignored in the head
count."(29)
The English government variously referred to Irish to be
transported as rogues, vagabonds, rebels, neutrals, felons,
military prisoners, teachers, priests, maidens etc. All
historians call them servants, bondsman, indentured servants,
slaves, etc., and agree that they were all political victims. The
plain facts are that most were treated as slaves. After their
land was confiscated by England, which drove them from their
ancestral homes to forage for roots like animals, they were
kidnapped, rounded up and driven like cattle to waiting ships and
transported to English colonies in America, never to see their
country again. They were the victims of what many called the
immense "Irish Slave Trade."
All writers on the 17th century American colonies are in
agreement that the treatment of white servants or white slaves in
English colonies was cruel to the extreme, worse than that of
black slaves; that inhuman treatment was the norm, that torture
(and branding FT, fugitive traitor, on the forehead) was the
punishment for attempted escape. Dunn stated: "Servants were
punished by whipping, strung up by the hands and matches lighted
between their fingers, beaten over the head until blood ran,"
--all this on the slightest provocation.(30) Ligon, an eyewitness
in Barbados from 1647-1650 said, "Truly, I have seen cruelty
there done to servants as I did not think one Christian could
have done to another."(31)
It is a matter of great importance to realize that most of
the white slaves, servants and small farmers abandoned the West
Indies for the mainland colonies in America. Dunn reports:
"Between 1678 and 1713, Leeward sugar planters became more rich
and powerful and controlled all local councils and assemblies so
white servants and small farmers abandoned the Leeward
Islands."(32) Craven said that between 1643 and 1667, about
12,000 left Barbados for other plantations(33) and Dunn said the
white population of the Leeward Islands was reduced by 30 percent
between 1678 and 1708.(34) According to Craven, in Colonies in
Transition, prior to the 1680's, the hopes which sustained the
Carolina venture continued to depend chiefly upon the migration
of settlers from the older colonies, especially from the West
Indies.(35) Smith asserted that after 1670, the emigration of
whites from the smaller islands at least equalled the
immigration.(36) Condon declared: "In [the] course of time many
of those who had been transported to the West Indies in this
manner found their way to the colonies on the continent, in
search of greater freedom and a more healthful climate."(37)
All writers on the 17th century history agree that between
one-half and two thirds of white immigrants in the British West
Indies and mainland America were servants, most of them severely
mistreated. Most all Irish immigrants were 'servants.' Irish were
almost exclusively Catholic (at least they were when they left
Ireland) and most were of ancient Irish families even though they
appeared in English records as English, if recorded at all.
After 20,000 Puritans arrived in the American colonies from
1630-1640, migration of English colonists all but subsided. Some
writers say after 1640 only a trickle of English colonists
arrived. In 1632, many Irish were on Antigua. In 1637, 69 percent
of whites on Montserrat were Irish. In 1650, 25,000 Irish were on
St. Kitt's and Nevis and some were on other Leeward islands. In
1652, prior to the wholesale transportation of Irish, most of 12
thousand political prisoners on Barbados were Irish.
From 1651 to 1660, between 80,000 to 130,000 Irish were
transported. From 1660-1700, there was a large steady flow of
Irish immigrants. Most whites, especially servants, slaves and
small farmers went to the American mainland for more freedom, a
healthier climate and economic betterment.
There are no verifiable records on the white population of
all the American colonies in the 17th century. Some estimates
include blacks, some do not. Some list only members of the Church
of England. Estimates are made for Barbados for a certain year
while estimates are made for the Leeward Islands for other years.
The same applies to Jamaica and the mainland colonies. One
estimate for the mainland colonies, white and black included, was
given at 204,000 in 1689.
In the absence of reliable records, I believe it is necessary
to take the following into very serious consideration: migration
trends, prolificness of people of varying national origin, laws in
effect in the country from which people migrated; the prevailing
conditions in the country undergoing emigration; the amount of
control the emigrating people had over their own destiny; and the
fact that all American colonies both mainland and the West Indies
were very intertwined,
Well over one-half of white immigrants to the
West Indies during the 17th century were Irish Catholic servants,
most who, in the course of time, abandoned the West Indies for
the mainland American colonies.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
*This article comes from the newsletter of the:
Political Education Committee (PEC)
American Ireland Education Foundation
54 South Liberty Drive, Suite 401
Stony Point NY 10980
1-914-947-2726
Its use does not imply their approval of The CATHOLIC Weekly nor
do we necessarily guarantee their perfection. The article is
consistant with the conditions which occurred durring the English
"Reformation." -Ed.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Bibliography
Aubrey Gwynn, S.J., Documents relating to Irish in the West
Indies -- Analecta Hibernica
Page: 153
Note: 1
Edward O'Meagher Condon, The Irish Race in America, New York,
A.E. and R.E. Ford, 1887
Page: 15 41 38,9
Note: 3 21 37
Arthur Percoval Newton, The European Nations in the West Indies
1493-1688, London, J. Dickens & Co, Reprint 1967
Page: 163
Note: 4
Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, Chapel Hill, NC, U of NC
Press, 1972
Page: 56, 122, 130 ? 133 160
Note: 5 13 24 25
Page: 327 ? 131 141
Note: 29 30 32 34
Maurice Lenihan, History of Limerick, Cork, Mercier, ?
Page: 668,9 669
Note: 6 26
John P. Prendergast, The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland,
Dublin, ?, 1865
Note: 9 17
Sir William Petty, Political Anatomy of Ireland, London, ?, 1719
Page: 19
Note: 7
John Thurloe, Letter of Henry Cromwell, 4th Thurloe's State
Papers, London, 1742
Note: 8
Thomas Addis Emmet, Ireland Under English Rule, NY & London,
Putnam, 1903
Page: 101, vol I 101, vol I 211,2
Note: 12 19 28
Joseph J. Williams, Whence the "Black Irish" of Jamaica, NY,
Dial, MCMXXXII
Page: 17 17
Note: 10 11
Anthony Broudine, Propuguaculum, Pragae Anno, 1669
Note: 18
Dr. John Lingard, History of England, Edinburgh, ? ,1902
Page: 336, vol X
Note: 20
Abbot E. Smith, Colonists in Bondage, 1607-1776, Glouster, Mass,
Smith, 1965
Page: 164 165 334 209 336
Note: 2 16 23 27 36
C. S. S. Higham, The Development of the Leeward Islands Under the
Restoration, 1660-1688, London,
Cambridge, 1921
Page: 4 47
Note: 14 22
Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of Barbadoes, London,
Cass, 1657, reprinted 1976
Page: 44
Note: 31
Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro, 1492-1969, New York,
Harper and Roe, 1971
Page: 101
Note: 15
Wesley Frank Craven, The Colonies in Transition, 1660-1713, New
York, Harper and Roe, 1968
Page: 55 58
Note: 33 35
---------------------------------------
<CW> Copyright The CATHOLIC Weekly 1995
Use with acknowledgement permitted.
[email protected]
---------------------------------------
Provided courtesy of:
Eternal Word Television Network
5817 Old Leeds Road
Irondale, AL 35210
www.ewtn.com
